The rate at which host organisms accumulate parasites is affected by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The New
Zealand cockle
Austrovenus stutchburyi is frequently parasitised by trematodes comprising of two species of echinostomes and a species of gymnophallid that use
it as a second intermediate host for trophic transmission to avian definitive hosts. The echinostomes are capable of manipulating
the burrowing behaviour of the cockle to enhance their transmission success, whereas the gymnophallid is not capable of host
manipulation. Previous studies have found patterns of positive associations between the echinostomes and the gymnophallid.
Thus, it is possible that the latter is a “hitch-hiking” parasite that preferentially infects cockles already heavily infected
by echinostome metacercariae to enhance its own transmission rate. A field experiment involving cockles forced to remain either
above or below the sediment surface to simulate manipulated and non-manipulated cockles was conducted to test the hitch-hiking
hypothesis. The gymnophallid was not found to display any preference for either surfaced or buried cockles; therefore, it
cannot be considered as a hitch-hiking parasite. Possible alternative reasons for the pattern of positive association between
the gymnophallid and the echinostomes are proposed.